Training programs

Later, the Party implemented a number of programs to send promising members and officials - from the grassroots to the ministerial-level - on educational programs overseas. In addition to Switzerland, the United States, Singapore, the United Kingdom, Germany, France and Japan have all hosted CPC members as students.

Now, the University of Lausanne is implementing a program for middle- to high-ranking CPC officials, civil servants and executives from State-owned enterprises, with as many as 100 undertaking two-week training courses every year.

"They are quite high-level and talented, and they always ask interesting questions," Palazzo said, adding that the training programs have been operating for more than 20 years.

While the Swiss program deals with sustainable development, innovation and management, CPC officials who studied in the United States focused on leadership training.

Anthony Saich, director of the Ash Center for Democratic Governance and Innovation at Harvard University's Kennedy School, oversaw a leadership-training program for officials, jointly implemented by Tsinghua University and the China Development Research Foundation.

Saich, who first visited China in the 1970s as a student of Chinese economy and politics, said the main objective of the program, which started in 2002 and ended in 2014, was to introduce officials to techniques that would improve their ability to make informed public policy choices.

Dozens of ministerial-level officials, enrolled by the Organization Department of the CPC Central Committee, graduated from the program. Vice-President Li Yuanchao is one of the officials and business leaders who benefitted over the years.

"The participants were all very capable and clearly motivated, not only to learn but also to contribute their own experiences," Saich said. "A major factor was the discussion of best practices from around the world. I think the program provided participants with an international perspective that they could bring to their work."

Lu Mai, general secretary of the China Development Research Foundation in Beijing, and Xue Lan, dean of Tsinghua University's School of Public Policy and Management, were two of the originators and driving forces behind the program. Both studied and worked in the US in the 1980s and 90s, and the contacts they made benefitted the program.

"Many of the participants in the program, which was well-designed and meaningful, have been the backbones of China's development," Lu said, in a previous interview with China Daily.

In an email exchange, Saich said the program consisted of a number of components, including analytical tools and modes of analysis, specific topics and wide-ranging classes about US politics and other themes. The students were taught by renowned Harvard experts.

Professor Joseph Nye lectured on soft power, while Professor Lawrence Summers focused on the future of the US economy and Sino-US economic relations.

"One important by-product of the program was that we learned a lot about China and the challenges it is dealing with," Saich wrote. "The program gave our Chinese colleagues the opportunity to present their views about crucial issues to us."